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In 1847, a man named Charles Decker bought a young girl named Sally. Decker gave Sally to his sister Clarissa Young, and she lived the rest of her days in the home of the Youngs. Where did this story take place?听

If you guessed somewhere in the American South, you guessed wrong. Sally鈥檚 story may seem familiar to you as the practice of chattel enslavement in the late nineteenth century was common in the southern United States. However, Sally did not live in the south and was not African American. She was an enslaved Paiute woman who lived in the home of Brigham Young, the leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.听

In the twenty-first century, the history of enslavement is at the center of many public debates over the nation鈥檚 legacy from the past. Many people understandably would assume that this history took place in the American South, but it is a story set in the interior West,听a region that must be included听in the current national reckoning.

The Old Spanish Trail crossed New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and California. Today the trail is recognized through a national park, various historical markers, and portions of the infamous Route 66. The Old Spanish Trail was the local for both an Indigenous slave trade and a route of travel for chattel enslaved people. Utah claims a central place in the discussion of enslavement in the North American West. It was within Utah that both chattel and Indigenous enslavement was legal.听In 1852, the Utah Territorial Legislature passed听An Act in Relation to Service, which legalized chattel slavery, 补苍诲听An Act in Relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners, which legalized Indigenous captivity. The first law controlled slave owners and the second听controlled the enslaved people.听

The first law听had nine sections. Each section of the law limited the power of chattel slaveowners toward their enslaved persons. In southern chattel slavery, the children of slaves were automatically the property of the mother鈥檚 owner. In contrast,听An Act in Relation to Service听states that 鈥渘o contract shall bind the heirs of the servant or servants to service.鈥� Southern slave owners increased their 鈥減roperty value鈥� through the birth of slave children. Slave owners in Utah would gain no additional 鈥減roperty鈥� through the birth of children.

The second law听contained four sections and dealt with the forced assimilation of Indigenous captives. The Utah Territorial Legislature viewed the assimilation of Indigenous captives as 鈥渢he duty of all humane and Christian people to extend unto this degraded and downtrodden race.鈥澨�听Captives were automatically placed into Anglo-American homes, clothes, and schools for at least twenty years, with no regard for their Indigenous languages and customs.听

An Act in Relation to Service听补苍诲听An Act for the Further Relief听of Indian Slaves and Prisoners听made slavery in Utah legal. Both are nearly forgotten. Nonetheless, these laws should be within the discussion of enslavement within the United States. This is a reminder that听补濒濒听enslaved persons- rather chattel, Indigenous, or people caught in captivity today-听matter. We need to see the legacy of enslavement in the United States. The role of the Old Spanish Trail and the enslaved persons that traveled it, hold a place within the wider narrative of enslavement.听

Medical records, housing applications, registration in half a dozen shelter systems, food banks, and free dental care days. Sometimes, prison records. The data of the听听is recorded in abundance. But what can these records tell us beyond the numbers? What about these people鈥檚 stories? Their knowledge? The questions they ask each other and themselves?

听听听听听听听听听听听听鈥淲here are our leaders?鈥� D. says this with his arms spread wide, almost touching the walls. We are recording an oral history in the staff trailer at an SOS site in a church parking lot. SOS stands for Safe Outdoor Spaces, sanctioned campsites established for 6-month terms across the city of Denver. Tents are fixed on wooden pallets, and the sites are enclosed with privacy walls. Services arrive on weekly schedules: laundry trucks, shower trucks, laptops, donated food on a meal train.听

Last summer, a colleague and I recorded oral histories with 12 SOS residents and staff. We hoped that oral history鈥檚 guiding principle of 鈥渟hared authority鈥� would benefit a community so rarely invited to contribute what they know.

D. asks me to pause the recording. He is tearing up. Getting a spot at an SOS site means that for the first time in a long time, he is thinking about something other than the next meal, shower, or camping spot. He has a lot to say and he takes his time with how to say it.

These narratives record only a sliver of what this community knows, but that sliver is a crack of light from under the door. Isaac knows that when organizations passed around hand sanitizer during the pandemic, campers used it to build fires, more concerned about the cold than a virus. He knows how to wake up in the rain to find that his shoes have been stolen from his feet.听He knows that when you walk through a city without shoes on, people will not ask听听"do you need help?" and no one will say "hang in there.鈥� He knows that people will offer only 鈥渄irty looks.鈥澨�

Dan knows that when people living in houses and apartments get nervous about campers in their neighborhood, a conversation would do wonders.听鈥淚f you come to us with a problem,鈥� he says, 鈥渕ost of us can help you . . . fix it.鈥�

Helena knows that we can鈥檛 give up on each other. 鈥淲hen I was on the streets,鈥� she says, 鈥渁nd I was struggling with addiction . . . all I wanted was for somebody to care. All I wanted was for somebody who understands what I'm going through to help me. And I know I can't be the only person who feels that way.鈥�

Later in D.鈥檚 narrative, he turns toward the tents outside. His eyes are dry when he says, 鈥淲e don't want to believe that our system, the best system in the world, created problems for people who may never come out of it. . . .we have to decide as a country, as a nation, what's acceptable and what isn't.鈥�

As the paperwork of homelessness piles up in filing cabinets and databases, we might try to listen to what people behind the data know. If records leave us with the听what听of numbers, oral histories might leave us with the so what听of stories and knowledge.

颁濒颈肠办听听to access the SOS Oral History project.听

Beyond a shared language and general oceanic orientation, 19th-century California and Britain's Pacific colonies don鈥檛 appear to have much in common. And true, they differed greatly in terms of government organization, class structure, and the proper way to spell 鈥減ajamas鈥� (or is it 鈥減yjamas?鈥�)

But when we factor in issues like immigration, land rights, and diplomacy, we find more similarities than differences. Therefore, looking at the historical entanglements between the American empire in California and Britain鈥檚 Pacific Empire better equips us in the present day to address issues of xenophobia, access to natural resources, and ongoing demands for decolonization.听

It was my drive to better understand the evolution of these issues that brought me some 5,437 miles (or 8,750 kilometers鈥攕ee? Those pesky cultural differences arise again!) from California to London to consult British government records.听

And here I beg for an indulgent pause to reflect on 鈥渢he historical profession.鈥� As historians, our job is to go into archives, research, and from that research tell stories that both illuminate our past and shed light on our present moment. We鈥檙e taught to be objective, logical. From the outside, it seems a rather neat and tidy experiment (though in reality it never is.) But nowhere in graduate school are you taught what to do when you find something unexpected, something that so wholly disturbs the peace and tranquility of the reading room.听

So, one very normal morning, I turned the page in one of the many folios and came across a shipping report, and the following note on one table sent chills across my body:

鈥淢any of the Chinese jumped overboard.鈥澨�

Image 1. Ledger detailing the deaths and illness of Chinese emigrants. The remarks point to the unhygienic and inhumane conditions aboard many sailing vessels. Letter from Clinton Murdoch, 19 June 1958. The British Library, Carnarvon Papers, Add MS 60782.听

This was the last line in a ledger documenting the suicide of Chinese laborers aboard British and American (as well as Spanish, French, Portuguese鈥�) sailing vessels who were sent, many through force or coercion, to Cuba in the mid-19^th听century. This 鈥渃oolie trade鈥� began in the 1840s, consisting mostly of men from China (as well as South Asia) who were often kidnapped or frauded by agents into so-called indentured servitude in the Caribbean, a very colonial labor solution to the end of the African slave trade.听

And I sat as tears welled up and spilt over, soaking into my face mask. I couldn鈥檛 shake those six words that, for most, are probably the only earthly record remaining of their lives: 鈥�Many of the Chinese jumped overboard.鈥澨�Out of the corner of my eye I spotted the furtive glances of one archivist, certainly equally parts confused about my emotional state and concerned that my tears might land on these priceless papers. I struggled to regain my composure, thinking about the hundreds of people who sooner sought what dignity that could in choosing death far from home, than suffer under slavery. It reminded me of the stories of Middle Passage鈥攐f the horrific conditions that enslaved Africans faced upon the perilous voyage across the Atlantic. Many of them, too, sought solace in the sea.听

At first I felt self-conscious and ashamed of my reaction; as professionals were expected to train the emotion out of ourselves鈥攅specially us women鈥攊n order to be taken seriously. But then I realized there is strength in emotion, and the 鈥渋deal鈥� of the unfeeling scholar is an affront to the humanity we so often claim to seek. Empathy is听empowering, and I fervently encourage any reading this to embrace emotion, for it鈥檚 a universal tool that allows us to connect to other humans, past and present. After all, aren鈥檛 historians conduits between the living and the dead?听

For many Wa拧铆w experiencing the blatant racism and prejudiced social climate of Minden, NV, the daily siren at 6:00 p.m. is a deafening trigger. The outdated ordinance from 1908 mandating that Native Americans, specifically the听Wa拧铆w, vacate the town by dusk is remembered as the shrieks of the siren project Gardnerville鈥檚 ongoing racist atmosphere.听

Sundown towns are remembered mostly as being towns that mandated the exclusion of Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Native American people. Located mostly in the Midwest and the West, they were enacted as a response to the growing number of Black people fleeing racial violence in the South and coincided with the growing labor market in the West. Targeting a particular group was dependent on the ethnic makeup of particular regions.

Established in 1906, Minden, NV is situated in the Carson Valley which is home to the Pa Wa Lu or 鈥淧eople of the Valley鈥� band of the Wa拧铆w. Federally recognized as the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California, the Wa拧铆w maintain that we have been of this land since time immemorial. The relationship between the Wa拧铆w and settlers has been contentious since settlers first flooded our area in search of mining prospects and rich farmlands. These competing worldviews clashed and served as a staging ground for conflict.听听

Restricting the presence of Wa拧铆w people in particular places was seen as a policy that would help to eliminate friction between the groups. This of course would only serve to empower settlers with the jurisprudence to enact violence.听

The restriction was policed by not only law enforcement, but many white citizens also took it upon themselves to determine and carry out penalties. Wa拧铆w elders have shared horror stories of the treatment they suffered. Many acts of violence occurred on a wide spectrum from being verbally assaulted with racial slurs like 鈥淕o back to the Rez DIGGER!鈥� and 鈥淵ou squaws better get home if you know what鈥檚 best for you!鈥� to physical and sexual assault. Several Wa拧铆w men were beaten and their braids were cut off. Many Wa拧铆w women were beaten and raped. These acts of violence would go unpunished as the Wa拧iw people did not hold confidence in law enforcement as law enforcement officials were co-perpetrators.听

The uncompromising position of the Wa拧铆w to silence the siren has been recognized by the Nevada state legislature. On February 2, 2021, Assembly Bill 88 was signed by Governor Steve Sisolak and mandated a statewide ban on sundown sirens. This prompted action from Minden and on June 30, 2021, an unsanctioned agreement was struck between the Washoe Tribe Chairman Serell Smokey and Minden Town Manager J.D. Frisby. Minden鈥檚 website stated, 鈥淭he 5:00 p.m. siren will serve to acknowledge the volunteer firefighters and first responders who have been historically dispatched by the town siren. Deleting the 6:00 p.m. siren will honor those hurt by archaic sundowner mandates of prior eras.鈥�

Many residents of Dresslerville, NV 鈥� a Wa拧铆w community connected to the town met the day following at a Dresslerville Community Council meeting to deliberate the issue. Following a dialogue that reflects the unwavering position of the Washoe to completely silence the siren, a collective sentiment arose, 鈥淣othing has happened in those meetings (referring to the agreement between Smokey and Frisby)! Except we鈥檝e lost an hour in town!鈥澨�

Perhaps the unforeseeable future is an adequate unit of measurement for gauging when the Wa拧铆w and the town of Minden might achieve a mutual agreement.听听

*Missing why white people argue to keep siren听

Angelika Joseph Recent studies in American history seem to support the same conclusion: America has听been awful. The country was founded on the belief that 鈥淎ll men were created equal,鈥� as well as dispossession and enslavement. In the centuries that followed, group after group experienced the awfulness of America. And, few scholars would argue that we even manage to live up to our stated ideals of liberty and justice for all, today.

How are we supposed to live with this? How are we supposed to live in a country that has a history as violent as America鈥檚?

It seems like we, as a country, have some ideas. There鈥檚 affirmative action, and 鈥渓and acknowledgments.鈥� We鈥檝e tried taking down some statues and putting up other statues. Some have argued for dutifully teaching what is usually referred to as 鈥渢he real history of the United States of America,鈥� and others have dubbed this 鈥淐ritical Race Theory鈥� and have rallied to ban these histories from classrooms.

These moves seem to focus either on addressing an awful American history or moving on from it. They don鈥檛 tell us how to听live听with an awful American history, day in and day out, everywhere we go.

So far, nothing has so fundamentally changed my understanding of 鈥渓iving with history鈥� as a clip of archival video footage taken at Wounded Knee, South Dakota on March 10th, 1973. In the video, a bunch of young Native American activists stand in front of the Catholic Church. This is the same location from which the US massacred Lakota men, women, and children on December 29th, 1890. The activists are holding riffles, and standing around some makeshift bunkers. Across the valley, the Federal Forces in Armored Personel Carriers point some of the most sophisticated military technology available in their direction.

Standing around the bunkers, one activist says 鈥淎im your guns at us鈥� and laughter drowns out the rest of the sentence. Another replies 鈥渓ook militant.鈥� In response, one activist lifts his gun over himself, lowers it, and then lifts his closed fist, as if he is trying to figure out which militant look looks best on him. Everyone laughs. Someone says 鈥渘o autographs please,鈥� which is followed by even more laughter.

In his 1969 book, 鈥淐uster Died for your sins: An Indian Manifesto,鈥� Vine Deloria Jr writes 鈥淗umor, all Indians will agree, is the cement by which the coming Indian movement is held together. When a people can laugh at themselves and laugh at others and hold all aspects of life together without letting anybody drive them to extremes, then it seems to me that that people can survive.鈥� Deloria was right, of course.

Somehow, Native American activists laughing on the site of a massacre, with guns pointed at them, seems like the clearest parable I can offer on the art of living with American history.

We听cannot begin to underst补苍诲听the听complicated听history of immigration enforcement without reckoning with听two events that changed the nature of U.S. immigration.听When congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882听the听process of the United States听becoming a gatekeeper nation began. The Immigration Act of 1907 completed that transformation.

But how did that shift occur?听The United States is driven by imagination. From the revolution to听the听War on Terrorism,听the American government听has听determined听its听next moves by imagining thefork in听the road, where the听results of action听diverge from听the consequences of inaction. 听The history of immigration听hinges on听imagining the outcomes of听those choices.

But immigrants also have imaginations. They听imagine a better life, an open, welcoming new home. American听citizens听imagine, too, that the United States is听the Land of Opportunity, a melting pot where the American Dream is there for anyone听to achieve. But听these听acts ofimagination have听been poisoned.听

Since 1882 and the Chinese Exclusion Act. American politicians have imagined the border to be a place听with听overwhelming violence, drug cartels, contraband, and immigrants crossing illegally almost at will in numbers too large to guess, stealing jobs from Americans, all of which听are,generously, gross exaggerations.听

Hence, my preoccupation with imagination!

Much of immigration history, especially along the border with Mexico, is based on events that never actually occurred: Chinese hordes never materialized; Mexican laborers never came into the United States听to steal听jobs from Americans;听most undocumented immigrants did not arrive by sneaking across the border, etc.听In many ways,听I am writing the听history of what never happened.But those acts of imagination were听far from harmless.听They听led to and created听real听acts of violence that听affected听the lives of many听of the immigrants whose imaginations allowed them to push through听incredibly difficult times in their lives.听Then they were destroyed by the imaginations of others.

So how听do we stop the constant poisoning of the American immigration imagination?听How do we remove the poison before it kills the American听Dream?听By listening to the past.听In the late 19th听century, xenophobes听like听South Carolina Senator Wade Hampton III听screamed听that the Chinese would听鈥渋naugurate听a carnival of corruption, of vice, and of crime, at which the world would stand aghast.鈥澨鼿istory, though, whispers, 鈥渢here were only听75,000 Chinese people in听California听out of a population of 1.2 million听in 1890. There were听34 Chinese people in South Carolina.鈥澨齀n 2006,听white supremacy enthusiast听Glenn Beck听bellowed听鈥淸Mexico] has been overtaken by lawbreakers鈥�. And now, what you鈥檙e protesting for is to have lawbreakers come here.鈥澨鼿istory听calmly responds, 鈥淓l Paso, Texas听is听right on the border with Mexico听and has700,000听residents,听eighty percent of whom are听Hispanic, with a large听percentage听of undocumented immigrants.听Statistically,听El Paso is one of the safest cities in the country.鈥澨齋olisten to what the past has to say.听Hampton and Beck were both victims of their own听feverish imaginations. Take a lesson from them.听When reading about history, ignore your imagination. 听Focus on the听evidence, the听words, the听actions of the past.听That is the听past speaking to you, not your imagination.听

Summer is a time for community, cookouts, and celebration, especially at a powwow.听Today,听social media听allows听distant听family and friends can join in the festivities.听This听morning on my Facebook feed,听I saw听KMHA 91.3鈥檚 broadcast of the Santee Lucky Mound Powwow. Soldiers, the听American Legion听color guard,听and women from the Ladies Auxiliary听opened听Powwow. My eyes were drawn to the听ladies鈥櫶齛uxiliary听as they danced.听These women听follow听in the footsteps of generations of Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sahnish听women who have always been instrumental in honoring听their nations鈥櫶齱arriors听in听ceremonies 补苍诲听creating their nations鈥� futures.听Honoring soldiers is not听new;听MHA women have always honored soldiers through ceremonies and practices, much like the Ladies Auxiliaries do at the Powwow.

The Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sahnish (also known as the Arikara)听share the Fort Berthold Reservation in present-day North Dakota. In written documents, they are often abbreviated with their initials, MHA.听MHA听women have always welcomed soldiers home and celebrated the protection of their communities.听In June听2021,听I met with Susan听Hall, a Hidatsa-Sahnish leader of both the United Church of Christ 补苍诲听the听broader听Fort Berthold society.听The night before, I saw Susan听dancing听with the members of the听Ladies听Auxiliary at听the Four Bears Powwow.听Hall鈥檚听dad and brothers were in the听service,听so听her aunts were part听of the听auxiliaries.听Fort Berthold has a long history of honoring soldiers serving in and alongside the US military beginning with the Sahnish scouts who fought alongside the US calvary against the Lakota. Today, many MHA women and men serve in the arm forces.听The听auxiliary听honors听their relatives, maintain memorials and fundraise for the post.听These women perform essential roles in society through听their听service.

On Fort Berthold, the听Ladies Auxiliaries听are related to the听Hidatsa Enemy Women鈥檚 Societyaccording to听Bernadine听Young Bird,听a professor听at听Nueta, Hidatsa, Sahnish College.听Young Bird鈥檚 mother was a society member and taught her听Hidatsa听women in The听Enemy Women鈥檚听Society听supported听warriors听performing听Victory Dances听upon their return. However, in the early 20th听century, the United States听government鈥檚听obsession with听鈥淎mericanizing鈥� 补苍诲听controllingIndigenous听nations led to a widespread ban on Indigenous ceremonies.听However, women continued to practice their ceremonies and honor soldiers听secretly听holding them at approved gatherings听like Fourth of July celebrations. These gatherings are the precursor to today鈥檚 powwow.听Enemy Women鈥檚 Society continued听until听the听1960s, 补苍诲听its social and sacred roles continue in the Auxiliaries,听which have songs,听补苍诲听dances, 补苍诲听fulfill the society鈥檚听practices. Today, Young Bird is a member of the 9061 auxiliary and continues to honor soldiers and support her community just like her mother and grandmothers.

鈥嬏齏hen Hall, Young Bear, and the other Auxiliary members dawn their yellow shawls for Grand Entry, their ancestors dance beside them. They are connected to generations of women who honor soldiers 补苍诲听the听defense of their communities and demonstrate the cultural continuity听and adaptation of Indigenous nations like the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sahnish.听Women Indigenized the auxiliaries through cultural adaptation and continuity which shape their future.

On May 30, 1943, an early morning phone call awakened Gonzalo and Jovita Valles at their west side home in the City of San Bernardino.听An听army air corps听official听informed them that听their听son, Juvenal,听drowned during a military exercise. Two hours of medical attention did not save him.

When Juvenal鈥檚 body arrived in San Bernardino, staff at Mountain View Cemetery denied him burial.听The ugly exclusion of segregation听extended听even into听the graveyards.

Only two months听later,听employees at听the听Perris Hill Park听used听the same听pretext听to deny Mike Valles, Gonzalo and Jovita鈥檚 thirteen-year-old son, admission into the municipal swimming pool.听In response,听Mexican Americans听organized听an extensive effort to defend听their community听from the city鈥檚听discriminatory听policies. Gonzalo spearheaded听a听desegregation campaign by forming the Mexican American Defense Committee, a coalition that included Catholic priest Jose虂听Nu虂n虄ez听and Spanish-language newspaper editors Ignacio听Lo虂pez听and Eugenio听Nogueras.

Their听efforts yielded results听when they successfully听integrated听the Mountain View Cemetery听and buried Juvenal Valles. They also听initiated one of听earliest class action lawsuits to听succeed ininvoking听the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to desegregate public facilities.听In the resulting case, filed as听Lopez v.听Seccombe听(1944),听the Defense Committee sued mayor William听Seccombe, along with the city council, city attorney, park superintendent, and police chief for their roles in denying Mexicans access to the municipal pool.听

David C. Marcus, a Los Angeles-based Jewish attorney,听stepped up as an important ally in the Mexican American struggle for听civil rights. He听represented the听San Bernardino听petitioners in their听case听to desegregate the swimming pool听and news of the successful lawsuit spread to other Southern California听barrios.

This prompted听Mexican Americans in Orange County听to听recruit听Marcus听to represent听them听in their effort to听desegregate听local听schools.听Mexican Americans once again made their case and won the lawsuit.听The eventual ruling in听this case,听Mendez v. Westminster听(1947),听directly cited the听Lopez听lawsuit as legal precedent.听positioned听California听as the first state听to desegregate public schools听and set an important legal precedent referenced in the landmark Supreme Court decision in听brown v. Board of Education听in 1954.

Though the Orange County case听has received considerable attention from historians for its connections to听Brown, even receiving acknowledgement through听postal stamps 补苍诲听the naming of schools听in honor of the Mendez family; this story is still largely听unknown听in the annals of American history.听Familiarity听of San Bernardino鈥檚 Mexican community and their efforts toward civil rights听is even more obscured in this story despite听the听importance听in helping us understand the history of civil rights.

The reasons for this historical negligence can be attributed to the city鈥檚 obsession with a pioneer past that celebrates white settlers in the making of San Bernardino and reduces the role of Mexican Americans in this history as non-existent. Academic historians, even those听within my own field of Latino history, share the blame for this听oversight by over-emphasizing urban centers like Los Angeles and scarcely acknowledging less populated regions like the Inland Empire.

The assumption that historical significance is unevenly distributed---dense in core areas and sparse in marginal areas, sometimes called hinterlands---has a deep root system. The power of this assumption has, paradoxically, made national self-understanding unnecessarily shallow.听

But听San Bernardino and the听Inland Empire serve as important examples听in challenging this misleading allocation of significance. Therefore, amplifying the long-marginalized voices of the diverse residents of San Bernardino, in my case the Mexican American population, corrects this troubling assumption and replaces it with a far more productive and realistic way of thinking about the past.

At听the conclusion of World War II, as the Allies prepared to try Nazi leaders at Nuremberg, Hermann G枚ring declared, 鈥淥f course I want a听good听attorney. But a good interpreter is more important.鈥澨鼿is听prosecutors听agreed.听With听pending testimony from听speakers of German, French, Russian, English, and other languages, the听Allies听knew the trial could not go forward without interpreters.听

In the听U.S.听courts听of the 1970s,听judicial authorities听reached a similar conclusion.听In听a听1974听case involving a Spanish speaker,听the Supreme Court of Arizona ruled that defendants of limited English proficiency have a fundamental right to interpreters.听In their words:听

鈥淚t is axiomatic that an indigent defendant who is unable to speak and understand the English language should be afforded the right to have the trial proceedings translated into his native language in order to participate effectively in his own defense鈥�.听A defendant's inability to spontaneously understand testimony being given听鈥μ齱ould be as though听[he]听were forced to observe the proceedings from a soundproof booth听鈥μ齜eing able to observe but not comprehend the criminal processes whereby the state had put his freedom in jeopardy.鈥�

Since the 1970s,听authorities听around the nation听have worked hard to train 补苍诲听certify the ability ofcourt interpreters and to standardize听interpretation听practices. In Oklahoma,听where听I work as an interpreter,听authorities听have done much in听the past decade.听The听main听challenge now is to persuade听judges and attorneys听to let听us听do our job.听

In courtrooms around central Oklahoma,听I听sometimes run into听attorneys who say they do not need interpreters because they already speak Spanish.听They may,听indeed.听But I have yet to hear an attorney听interpret in a way that would pass the certification exams.听Knowing neither the听technique nor the vocabulary, lawyers who brush off interpreters seldom know words such as听DA,听arraignment,听enter a plea,听waive,听deposition,听stipulation,听call docket. In criminal proceedings,听these terms听are听ubiquitous鈥攁nd lawyer-interpreters听regularly omit听them.听

On听one听occasion, I heard a defense attorney change the crime of 鈥渂urglary and assault鈥� to 鈥渞obbery and assault鈥� because he did not know the term for burglary. Imagine听how confused the defendant must have听felt.听After all,听he may have broken into a building, but听no one听else听in the courtroom had even insinuated that听he听had听stolen something.

The goal of court interpreters听is to听ensure that听defendants听with limited English听understand everything听that听native听English speakers would听underst补苍诲听in their position. To achieve this goal,听we learn simultaneous and consecutive interpretation, as well as sight translation听(reading English documents aloud in Spanish), and we use each mode听throughout criminal proceedings.听

If the history of听the听professionalization听of interpreters听since the 1970s teaches us anything, it is that these skills do not just appear when听someone learns a little Spanish听or when they have a Hispanic name. Why, then, do judges regularly believe attorneys who say they can do the interpreter鈥檚 job? Would they ever allow an interpreter to do the attorney鈥檚 job?听

Until听judges and attorneys embrace the irreplaceable role of听certified听interpreters, Spanish-speaking defendants and victims will not have full access to the U.S. legal system.听If听court authorities听want to听ensure fairness for non-English speakers, they will remember the听vision of the Arizona Supreme Court in the听1970s and allow interpreters to make听it听a reality.听

Borders divide, and borders unite, a contradiction that poses a lasting vexation to those who prefer clarity.

Take Chicagoland, where Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Michigan听seem听to meet.

Every day, thousands of people commute from surrounding areas into听Chicago.听The city has an influence that听does not听stop at the city鈥檚 borders. As proof, consider the number听of听Bears, Cubs, and Sox听memorabilia that inundates my Valparaiso neighborhood.

Given the听nonstop flow of people, goods,听services,听and even sports teams鈥� allegiances across state lines, I have been surprised by the tension created by these boundaries. When听I听flew into Chicago to visit Valparaiso University for the first time, a hotel concierge听cautioned听me,听a听Tennessean,听that I was 鈥渉eaded to the South鈥� on my drive to Indiana.听Giving as good as they got, numerous Valparaiso residents constantly warn me about the听supposed听political instability and dangerous violence of Illinois.

Apparently,听people care about these borders even as they cross them all the time.

This present-day irony of boundaries and boundary-crossing听has a long history.听Residents of Lake Michigan鈥檚 southern coast crossed borders long before Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan ever existed, and these historical boundaries听have never vanished from the landscape.Drivers in Porter County, Indiana, cross Indian Boundary Road while heading north on State Road 49 to Indiana Dunes National Park. This local street听follows听an听1826听border between the United States and the Potawatomi听Nation, the Native American people whose homelands include much of the Chicagoland area. Chicago鈥檚 Indian Boundary Park is another relic of a past border, one made in 1816 to separate Potawatomi, Ojibwe, and Odawa land from听U.S. territory.

In the early 1800s,听these borders mattered.听Clear borders offered a way for Indigenous peoples to resist Americans鈥� illegal expansion onto their lands.听Moreover, boundaries determined whether a traveler would be under the jurisdiction of听the United States or听Native nations, an arrangement that still makes听the prosecution of crimes difficult in many locales.

Nevertheless, nineteenth-century inhabitants of Lake Michigan鈥檚听south听shore听transcended and transgressed听these borders. Indigenous people听and African and European newcomers听traded with one another;听they married and had children with one another;听and they befriended one another.听In fact, trader Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, lionized for being Chicago鈥檚 first non-Indigenous inhabitant, survived with the help of his Potawatomi wife听Kitihawa.听Such听interpersonal ties came into being and persisted, even as U.S. expansion provoked horrific episodes of brutality and violence.

At this very moment, inhabitants of Chicagol补苍诲听seem headed for听an increased hardening听of听border听lines. The U.S. Supreme Court鈥檚 reversal of听Roe听is the most recent听source of听this听ongoingdivision.听With growing anti-abortion movements in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Michigan legislatures, Illinois is the only state in Chicagoland where women鈥檚 access to abortion is secure.听In seeking such services in Illinois,听women from surrounding states听will听continue听a border-crossing听practice long in the making.

Longtime Chicagoland residents听have reasons听to听emphasize the borders that divide the region.听As a听recent听arrival in the area, I encourage听my new neighbors to听recognize that we also cross these lines constantly.听History tells us that听it is possible to create community that transcends the most hardened听political听borders. Inhabitants of Lake Michigan鈥檚 south shore have been doing so for three hundred years.

鈥婽he听United States听occupied听Afghanistan听for nearly 20 years,听and little would have been accomplished without interpreters. Interpreters听gave crucial assistance to the war effort,听but many听were听forced听to make听eleventh hour听arrangements to flee their homeland in the face of rapid Taliban gains听during听the summer of 2021. The United States government听补苍诲听senior听military听commanders听invaded Afghanistan with little consideration for听stability 补苍诲听abandoned听these vital partners听鈥敳共曰逄齯ntold numbers of other Afghan allies鈥斕齮o die in a newly-minted pariah state.

鈥婭 deployed to Afghanistan in 2013.听By听then interpreters听were听worked into the military process as smoothly as a notoriously wasteful institution as the U.S. military would be capable of. In the weeks following the September 11th听attacks, a small cohort of Americans deployed听to the听anti-Taliban stronghold of the听Panjshir Valley. Jawbreaker,听as the group was called,听contained two听Americans capable of speaking the native languages of Pashto and Dari (and Farsi,听amutually intelligible听Iranian dialect). As Jawbreaker鈥檚 operations rapidly scaled from intelligence collection to combat operations,听interpreters were needed to fill capability gaps. In 2008, then-President Obama ordered a massive troop surge to secure the countryside and win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people.听Interpreters walked down roads laced with IEDs alongside Marines in Helmand and took cover from incoming fire with soldiers from the 101st听Airborne in the high peaks of the Hindu Kush.

鈥婭nterpreters facilitate cross-cultural dialogues, and the more different the two cultures are,the more effort they must put into their work.听Early in听Hernan Cortez听conquest of听Mexico, an听enslaved听indigenous woman widely known to history as La听Malinche听assisted the Spanish听duringnegotiations with听native听communities.听Oftentimes communicating in a chain of at least three languages, she proved indispensable听by听translating spoken words听补苍诲听transmitting the world views听of two deeply religious societies.听Malinche听won the respect of at least some of the Spanish, as she was听reverently called听Do帽a听Marina听in a Spanish veteran鈥檚 memoirs.

鈥婭t is important to remember that, at least in the beginning,听Malinche听was a slave.听Many Afghan interpreters, while not enslaved, lived in a country which had seen 40 years of uninterrupted conflict.听Every Afghan, not just interpreters, had to somehow survive in the economic, political, and psychological ramifications.听In Vice鈥檚 2013 documentary, 鈥淭his Is What Winning Looks Like,鈥� U.S. Marines bemoan the听unprofessionalism听of their Afghan allies, who were oftentimes intoxicated on opiates or听lax during patrols and guard duty. Many Americans听will doubtlessly blame this behavior for the failure of the war effort. Many of these same Americans will, at some other point in time, decry the suicide epidemic and drug addition suffered by听American veterans without understanding the irony.

鈥婱any human beings do not require听an interpreter to tell when they are being held in contempt by their听friends or听allies.听For many Afghans, surrender was inevitable.听A foreign occupying power made听promises with the one hand, 补苍诲听with the other听ignored听long held cultural norms, desires of communities, and inevitably听individual听dignity.听The United States may have communicated verbally with the Afghan people, but they could never win the locals over with mere lip service. Actions speak louder than words, and the languishing of our Afghan interpreters and partners听at the hands of听is deafening.

During the 1950s, filmmakers awed moviegoers with radioactive super-sized monsters. Spectators watched gigantic mutated insects and lizard-like atomic sea creatures wreck cities and munch on humans. Indeed, Cold-War anxieties about the perils of nuclear technologies found lurid expression on the silver screen.听

If the Godzilla franchise鈥檚 staying power is any indication鈥攊ts most recent installment hit theaters in 2021鈥攑ublic interest in the imagined consequences of radioactivity has persisted to the present. There鈥檚 just something about the old formula: other-than-human creature plus radiation equals darned scary monster.听

Ironically, although humans have manufactured technologies capable of destroying most life on earth, we tend to project our fears of nuclear apocalypse onto bodies dissimilar to our own. Like the atomic bomb, our radioactive monsters are bigger than life.听

Yet despite their cinematic charisma, gigantic insects and reptiles have yet to pose any tangible threat. The same is not true of all nuclear animals.

Prior to 1989, when Colorado鈥檚 Rocky Flats was still making triggers for nuclear bombs, workers noticed something strange: mysterious hot spots. As one employee recalled, 鈥淵ou鈥檇 come up with hot booties... You鈥檇 call the... monitors to check. And they鈥檇 find these little... prints.鈥� Another worker explained the cause: 鈥淲e had mice!鈥� The rodents would drink irradiated water from pea drains. Then, they鈥檇 track 鈥渓ittle hot footprints all over the place.鈥�

Mice aren鈥檛 only not-so-charismatic mini-fauna to have threatened 鈥渢he nuclear state.鈥� During the 1990s, a series of clam and mussel infestations mucked up the cooling systems at two different U.S. nuclear power plants.听

And other-than-human threats to nuclear security have persisted long since the so-called 鈥渆nd of the Cold War.鈥� In 2017, environmental activists protested the planed relocation of two-hundred prairie dogs to Rocky Flats鈥攏ow a wildlife refuge. Despite the fact that the prolific burrowers were a keystone species, whose numbers Rocky Flats鈥� wildlife managers wanted to boost, critics worried that the transplants might unearth radioactive materials from the site鈥檚 landfills.

As these historical snapshots show, when 鈥渨e humans鈥� have sought to control and surveil nuclear space, other-than-human beings鈥攏ot colossal monsters, but rodents and mollusks鈥攈ave frequently undermined our best-laid schemes.听

We might find a cautionary tale in Douglas Adams鈥檚听Hitchhiker鈥檚 Guide to the Galaxy听(1979). The novel ends with the revelation that one character鈥檚 pet mice were, in fact, pan-dimensional beings, who commissioned Earth as a supercomputer to generate 鈥渢he ultimate question to life, the universe, and everything.鈥澨�

I鈥檓 not suggesting that mice are covertly pulling all the strings in our nuclear saga. Indeed, their role may be a small one. But it is a role nonetheless and one that we humans have, in our hubris, long overlooked.听

There is an allegory here. So focused are we on the unimaginable power of atomic fission, that we often fail to think about the invisible menace of nuclear fallout. Our greatest peril just might be farthest from our minds.

Mid-twentieth century filmmakers understood something important. The leviathans they depicted were often ordinary creatures made formidable by their encounters with radiation. Atomic technologies, moviemakers understood, had blurred the line between the malignant and the mundane. Was anything in this world safe?

As we humans move forward in this storyline, we ought to recognize that seemingly innocuous things can spell danger.听

Where might we imagine ourselves on the spectrum that links the benign to the monstrous?听